Genetically modified organisms, GMOs, are organisms that have their genome altered through various techniques. These techniques are collectively termed genetic engineering. Among the most well applications of these processes are in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and foods. A transgenic organism is a form of GMO where the modification that has been undertaken is the addition of genetic material obtained from an unrelated organism. Using a genetically engineered organelle is the new frontier.
For a long time, nuclear transformation has been the main technique used in genetic modification. This is, however, now changing as researchers look away from this structure and consider other organelles within the plant cell. The most ideal alternatives that have emerged are mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria are found both in animal and plant cells while chloroplasts are only present in green plants.
Mitochondria are one of the most important organelles in a cell. Without them, cells can only survive for a limited duration of time. This is because they are the powerhouse of cells and provide energy required for various biochemical reactions that are needed by the cell. Just like the nucleus, mitochondria possess their own genome. This genome is smaller that what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that attempts to explain the presence of the genetic material within this organelle claims that mitochondria were initially independent, unicellular organisms. Proponents of this theory believe that mitochondria were initially parasitic organisms but would eventually evolve over thousands of years to be incorporated into cells to become symbiotic. The ovulation led to loss of part of their genome that made it difficult for them to exist independently. The same theory can be used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in green plants. They are mostly involved in a process known as photosynthesis which entails food production in the presence of energy derived from sunlight. Other important functions include synthesis of amino and fatty acids and mediation of cellular immune responses. Chloroplasts have a DNA that is often arranged in circular pattern. This DNA is usually inherited by daughter cells after cell division and thus modifications made on it are similarly inherited.
There are a number of processes involved in modifying the genome of an organism. The first step is to isolate the gene that his to be inserted into the organism. Options at this point include synthesis of the desired gene in a laboratory or obtaining it from a living cell. A number of genes which have been identified in the past have been stored in the genetic library and can be obtained from there. To make the gene of interest active, it is combined by other elements such as the promoter and terminator regions.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
Insertion of a genetic material into one cell only achieves a change in this cell. The next step is therefore to facilitate regeneration of the entire organism from this single cell. The process used for this in plants is known as tissue culture. In animals the cells used are usually stem cells so these would subsequently undergo cell division and cell growth.
For a long time, nuclear transformation has been the main technique used in genetic modification. This is, however, now changing as researchers look away from this structure and consider other organelles within the plant cell. The most ideal alternatives that have emerged are mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria are found both in animal and plant cells while chloroplasts are only present in green plants.
Mitochondria are one of the most important organelles in a cell. Without them, cells can only survive for a limited duration of time. This is because they are the powerhouse of cells and provide energy required for various biochemical reactions that are needed by the cell. Just like the nucleus, mitochondria possess their own genome. This genome is smaller that what is found in the nucleus.
One of the theories that attempts to explain the presence of the genetic material within this organelle claims that mitochondria were initially independent, unicellular organisms. Proponents of this theory believe that mitochondria were initially parasitic organisms but would eventually evolve over thousands of years to be incorporated into cells to become symbiotic. The ovulation led to loss of part of their genome that made it difficult for them to exist independently. The same theory can be used for chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in green plants. They are mostly involved in a process known as photosynthesis which entails food production in the presence of energy derived from sunlight. Other important functions include synthesis of amino and fatty acids and mediation of cellular immune responses. Chloroplasts have a DNA that is often arranged in circular pattern. This DNA is usually inherited by daughter cells after cell division and thus modifications made on it are similarly inherited.
There are a number of processes involved in modifying the genome of an organism. The first step is to isolate the gene that his to be inserted into the organism. Options at this point include synthesis of the desired gene in a laboratory or obtaining it from a living cell. A number of genes which have been identified in the past have been stored in the genetic library and can be obtained from there. To make the gene of interest active, it is combined by other elements such as the promoter and terminator regions.
The next step is to insert the gene into the organelle (chloroplast or mitochondria). One of the commonest techniques used is to subject the cell to some form of stress such as thermal energy or electric current. This works best for bacterial (prokaryotic) cells. For animal cells, the preferred methods are what is known as microinjection as well as delivery by viral vectors. Techniques used for plants may include electroporation, biolistics and agrobacteria mediated recombination.
Insertion of a genetic material into one cell only achieves a change in this cell. The next step is therefore to facilitate regeneration of the entire organism from this single cell. The process used for this in plants is known as tissue culture. In animals the cells used are usually stem cells so these would subsequently undergo cell division and cell growth.
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